The Evolution of Modern Medicine
by William Osler
Hypertext Meanings and Commentaries
from the Encyclopedia of the Self
by Mark Zimmerman

A SERIES OF LECTURES DELIVERED
AT YALE UNIVERSITY ON THE SILLIMAN
FOUNDATION IN APRIL, 1913

by WILLIAM OSLER

THE SILLIMAN FOUNDATION

IN the year 1883 a legacy of eighty thousand dollars was left to
the President and Fellows of Yale College in the city of New
Haven, to be held in trust, as a gift from her children, in
memory of their beloved and honored mother, Mrs. Hepsa Ely
Silliman.

On this foundation Yale College was requested and directed to
establish an annual course of lectures designed to illustrate the
presence and providence, the wisdom and goodness of God, as
manifested in the natural and moral world. These were to be
designated as the Mrs. Hepsa Ely Silliman Memorial Lectures. It
was the belief of the testator that any orderly presentation of
the facts of nature or history contributed to the end of this
foundation more effectively than any attempt to emphasize the
elements of doctrine or of creed; and he therefore provided that
lectures on dogmatic or polemical theology should be excluded
from the scope of this foundation, and that the subjects should
be selected rather from the domains of natural science and
history, giving special prominence to astronomy, chemistry,
geology and anatomy.

It was further directed that each annual course should be made
the basis of a volume to form part of a series constituting a
memorial to Mrs. Silliman. The memorial fund came into the
possession of the Corporation of Yale University in the year
1901; and the present volume constitutes the tenth of the series
of memorial lectures.

CONTENTS
Chapter II. Greek Medicine
Chapter III. Mediaeval Medicine
Chapter IV. The Renaissance and the Rise of Anatomy and
Physiology
Chapter V. The Rise and Development of Modern Medicine
Chapter VI. The Rise of Preventive Medicine

PREFACE

THE manuscript of Sir William Osler's lectures on the "Evolution
of Modern Medicine," delivered at Yale University in April, 1913,
on the Silliman Foundation, was immediately turned in to the Yale
University Press for publication. Duly set in type, proofs in
galley form had been submitted to him and despite countless
interruptions he had already corrected and revised a number of
the galleys when the great war came. But with the war on, he
threw himself with energy and devotion into the military and
public duties which devolved upon him and so never completed his
proof-reading and intended alterations. The careful corrections
which Sir William made in the earlier galleys show that the
lectures were dictated, in the first instance, as loose memoranda
for oral delivery rather than as finished compositions for the
eye, while maintaining throughout the logical continuity and the
engaging con moto which were so characteristic of his literary
style. In revising the lectures for publication, therefore, the
editors have merely endeavored to carry out, with care and
befitting reverence, the indications supplied in the earlier
galleys by Sir William himself. In supplying dates and references
which were lacking, his preferences as to editions and readings
have been borne in mind. The slight alterations made, the
adaptation of the text to the eye, detract nothing from the
original freshness of the work.

In a letter to one of the editors, Osler described these lectures
as "an aeroplane flight over the progress of medicine through the
ages."  They are, in effect, a sweeping panoramic survey of the
whole vast field, covering wide areas at a rapid pace, yet with
an extraordinary variety of detail. The slow, painful character
of the evolution of medicine from the fearsome, superstitious
mental complex of primitive man, with his amulets, healing gods
and disease demons, to the ideal of a clear-eyed rationalism is
traced with faith and a serene sense of continuity. The author
saw clearly and felt deeply that the men who have made an idea or
discovery viable and valuable to humanity are the deserving men;
he has made the great names shine out, without any depreciation
of the important work of lesser men and without cluttering up his
narrative with the tedious prehistory of great discoveries or
with shrill claims to priority. Of his skill in differentiating
the sundry "strains" of medicine, there is specific witness in
each section. Osler's wide culture and control of the best
available literature of his subject permitted him to range the
ampler aether of Greek medicine or the earth-fettered schools of
today with equal mastery; there is no quickset of pedantry
between the author and the reader. The illustrations (which he
had doubtless planned as fully for the last as for the earlier
chapters) are as he left them; save that, lacking legends, these
have been supplied and a few which could not be identified have
with regret been omitted. The original galley proofs have been
revised and corrected from different viewpoints by Fielding H.
Garrison, Harvey Cushing, Edward C. Streeter and latterly by
Leonard L. Mackall (Savannah, Ga.), whose zeal and persistence in
the painstaking verification of citations and references cannot
be too highly commended.

In the present revision, a number of important corrections, most
of them based upon the original MS., have been made by Dr. W.W.
Francis (Oxford), Dr. Charles Singer (London), Dr. E.C. Streeter,
Mr. L.L. Mackall and others.

This work, composed originally for a lay audience and for popular
consumption, will be to the aspiring medical student and the
hardworking practitioner a lift into the blue, an inspiring vista
or "Pisgah-sight" of the evolution of medicine, a realization of
what devotion, perseverance, valor and ability on the part of
physicians have contributed to this progress, and of the
creditable part which our profession has played in the general
development of science.

The editors have no hesitation in presenting these lectures to
the profession and to the reading public as one of the most
characteristic productions of the best-balanced, best-equipped,
most sagacious and most lovable of all modern physicians.

F.H.G.

BUT on that account, I say, we ought not to reject the ancient
Art, as if it were not, and had not been properly founded,
because it did not attain accuracy in all things, but rather,
since it is capable of reaching to the greatest exactitude by
reasoning, to receive it and admire its discoveries, made from a
state of great ignorance, and as having been well and properly
made, and not from chance. (Hippocrates, On Ancient Medicine,
Adams edition, Vol. 1, 1849, p. 168.)

THE true and lawful goal of the sciences is none other than this:
that human life be endowed with new discoveries and powers.
(Francis Bacon, Novum Organum, Aphorisms, LXXXI, Spedding's
translation.)

A GOLDEN thread has run throughout the history of the world,
consecutive and continuous, the work of the best men in
successive ages. From point to point it still runs, and when near
you feel it as the clear and bright and searchingly irresistible
light which Truth throws forth when great minds conceive it.
(Walter Moxon, Pilocereus Senilis and Other Papers, 1887, p. 4.)

FOR the mind depends so much on the temperament and disposition
of the bodily organs that, if it is possible to find a means of
rendering men wiser and cleverer than they have hitherto been, I
believe that it is in medicine that it must be sought. It is true
that the medicine which is now in vogue contains little of which
the utility is remarkable; but, without having any intention of
decrying it, I am sure that there is no one, even among those who
make its study a profession, who does not confess that all that
men know is almost nothing in comparison with what remains to be
known; and that we could be free of an infinitude of maladies
both of body and mind, and even also possibly of the infirmities
of age, if we had sufficient knowledge of their causes, and of
all the remedies with which nature has provided us. (Descartes:
Discourse on the Method, Philosophical Works. Translated by E.
S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross. Vol. I, Cam. Univ. Press, 1911, p.
120.)

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

SAIL to the Pacific with some Ancient Mariner, and traverse day
by day that silent sea until you reach a region never before
furrowed by keel where a tiny island, a mere speck on the vast
ocean, has just risen from the depths, a little coral reef capped
with green, an atoll, a mimic earth, fringed with life, built up
through countless ages by life on the remains of life that has
passed away. And now, with wings of fancy, join Ianthe in the
magic car of Shelley, pass the eternal gates of the flaming
ramparts of the world and see his vision:

Below lay stretched the boundless Universe!
There, far as the remotest line
That limits swift imagination's flight,
Unending orbs mingled in mazy motion,
   Immutably fulfilling
   Eternal Nature's law.
   Above, below, around,
   The circling systems formed
   A wilderness of harmony.
(Daemon of the World, Pt. I.)

And somewhere, "as fast and far the chariot flew," amid the
mighty globes would be seen a tiny speck, "earth's distant orb,"
one of "the smallest lights that twinkle in the heavens."
Alighting, Ianthe would find something she had probably not seen
elsewhere in her magic flight--life, everywhere encircling the
sphere. And as the little coral reef out of a vast depth had been
built up by generations of polyzoa, so she would see that on the
earth, through illimitable ages, successive generations of
animals and plants had left in stone their imperishable records:
and at the top of the series she would meet the thinking,
breathing creature known as man. Infinitely little as is the
architect of the atoll in proportion to the earth on which it
rests, the polyzoon, I doubt not, is much larger relatively than
is man in proportion to the vast systems of the Universe, in
which he represents an ultra-microscopic atom less ten thousand
times than the tiniest of the "gay motes that people the
sunbeams."  Yet, with colossal audacity, this thinking atom
regards himself as the anthropocentric pivot around which revolve
the eternal purposes of the Universe. Knowing not whence he
came, why he is here, or whither he is going, man feels himself
of supreme importance, and certainly is of interest--to himself.
Let us hope that he has indeed a potency and importance out of
all proportion to his somatic insignificance. We know of toxins
of such strength that an amount too infinitesimal to be gauged
may kill; and we know that "the unit adopted in certain
scientific work is the amount of emanation produced by one
million-millionth of a grain of radium, a quantity which itself
has a volume of less than a million-millionth of a cubic
millimetre and weighs a million million times less than an
exceptionally delicate chemical balance will turn to" (Soddy,
1912). May not man be the radium of the Universe? At any rate
let us not worry about his size. For us he is a very potent
creature, full of interest, whose mundane story we are only
beginning to unravel.

Civilization is but a filmy fringe on the history of man. Go back
as far as his records carry us and the story written on stone is
of yesterday in comparison with the vast epochs of time which
modern studies demand for his life on the earth. For two millions
(some hold even three millions) of years man lived and moved and
had his being in a world very different from that upon which we
look out. There appear, indeed, to have been various types of
man, some as different from us as we are from the anthropoid
apes. What upstarts of yesterday are the Pharaohs in comparison
with the men who survived the tragedy of the glacial period! The
ancient history of man--only now beginning to be studied-- dates
from the Pliocene or Miocene period; the modern history, as we
know it, embraces that brief space of time that has elapsed since
the earliest Egyptian and Babylonian records were made. This has
to be borne in mind in connection with the present mental status
of man, particularly in his outlook upon nature. In his thoughts
and in his attributes, mankind at large is controlled by
inherited beliefs and impulses, which countless thousands of
years have ingrained like instinct. Over vast regions of the
earth today, magic, amulets, charms, incantations are the chief
weapons of defense against a malignant nature; and in disease,
the practice of Asa[*] is comparatively novel and unusual; in
days of illness many millions more still seek their gods rather
than the physicians. In an upward path man has had to work out
for himself a relationship with his fellows and with nature. He
sought in the supernatural an explanation of the pressing
phenomena of life, peopling the world with spiritual beings,
deifying objects of nature, and assigning to them benign or
malign influences, which might be invoked or propitiated.
Primitive priest, physician and philosopher were one, and
struggled, on the one hand, for the recognition of certain
practices forced on him by experience, and on the other, for the
recognition of mystical agencies which control the dark,
"uncharted region" about him--to use Prof. Gilbert Murray's
phrase-- and were responsible for everything he could not
understand, and particularly for the mysteries of disease. Pliny
remarks that physic "was early fathered upon the gods"; and to
the ordinary non-medical mind, there is still something
mysterious about sickness, something outside the ordinary
standard.

[*] II Chronicles xvi, 12.

Modern anthropologists claim that both religion and medicine took
origin in magic, "that spiritual protoplasm," as Miss Jane
Harrison calls it. To primitive man, magic was the setting in
motion of a spiritual power to help or to hurt the individual,
and early forms may still be studied in the native races. This
power, or "mana," as it is called, while possessed in a certain
degree by all, may be increased by practice. Certain individuals
come to possess it very strongly: among native Australians today
it is still deliberately cultivated. Magic in healing seeks to
control the demons, or forces; causing disease; and in a way it
may be thus regarded as a "lineal ancestor of modern science"
(Whetham), which, too, seeks to control certain forces, no
longer, however, regarded as supernatural.

Primitive man recognized many of these superhuman agencies
relating to disease, such as the spirits of the dead, either
human or animal, independent disease demons, or individuals who
might act by controlling the spirits or agencies of disease. We
see this today among the negroes of the Southern States. A
Hoodoo put upon a negro may, if he knows of it, work upon him so
powerfully through the imagination that he becomes very ill
indeed, and only through a more powerful magic exercised by
someone else can the Hoodoo be taken off.

To primitive man life seemed "full of sacred presences" (Walter
Pater) connected with objects in nature, or with incidents and
epochs in life, which he began early to deify, so that, until a
quite recent period, his story is largely associated with a
pantheon of greater and lesser gods, which he has manufactured
wholesale. Xenophanes was the earliest philosopher to recognize
man's practice of making gods in his own image and endowing them
with human faculties and attributes; the Thracians, he said, made
their gods blue-eyed and red-haired, the Ethiopians, snub-nosed
and black, while, if oxen and lions and horses had hands and
could draw, they would represent their gods as oxen and lions and
horses. In relation to nature and to disease, all through early
history we find a pantheon full to repletion, bearing testimony
no less to the fertility of man's imagination than to the hopes
and fears which led him, in his exodus from barbarism, to regard
his gods as "pillars of fire by night, and pillars of cloud by
day."

Even so late a religion as that of Numa was full of little gods
to be invoked on special occasions--Vatican, who causes the
infant to utter his first cry, Fabulinus, who prompts his first
word, Cuba, who keeps him quiet in his cot, Domiduca, who watches
over one's safe home-coming (Walter Pater); and Numa believed
that all diseases came from the gods and were to be averted by
prayer and sacrifice. Besides the major gods, representatives of
Apollo, AEsculapius and Minerva, there were scores of lesser ones
who could be invoked for special diseases. It is said that the
young Roman mother might appeal to no less than fourteen
goddesses, from Juno Lucina to Prosa and Portvorta (Withington).
Temples were erected to the Goddess of Fever, and she was much
invoked. There is extant a touching tablet erected by a mourning
mother and inscribed:

Febri divae, Febri
Sancte, Febri magnae
Camillo amato pro
Filio meld effecto. Posuit.

It is marvellous what a long line of superhuman powers, major and
minor, man has invoked against sickness. In Swinburne's words:

God by God flits past in thunder till his glories turn to shades,
God by God bears wondering witness how his Gospel flames and
fades;
More was each of these, while yet they were, than man their
servant seemed;
Dead are all of these, and man survives who made them while he
dreamed.

Most of them have been benign and helpful gods. Into the dark
chapters relating to demonical possession and to witchcraft we
cannot here enter. They make one cry out with Lucretius (Bk. V):

O genus infelix humanum, talia divis
Cum tribuit facta atque iras adjunxit acerbas!
Quantos tum gemitus ipsi sibi, quantaque nobis
Vulnera, quas lacrimas peperere minoribu' nostris.

In every age, and in every religion there has been justification
for his bitter words, "tantum religio potuit suadere
malorum"--"Such wrongs Religion in her train doth bring"--yet,
one outcome of "a belief in spiritual beings"--as Tylor defines
religion-- has been that man has built an altar of righteousness
in his heart. The comparative method applied to the study of his
religious growth has shown how man's thoughts have widened in the
unceasing purpose which runs through his spiritual no less than
his physical evolution. Out of the spiritual protoplasm of magic
have evolved philosopher and physician, as well as priest. Magic
and religion control the uncharted sphere--the supernatural, the
superhuman: science seeks to know the world, and through knowing,
to control it. Ray Lankester remarks that Man is Nature's rebel,
and goes on to say: "The mental qualities which have developed in
Man, though traceable in a vague and rudimentary condition in
some of his animal associates, are of such an unprecedented power
and so far dominate everything else in his activities as a living
organism, that they have to a very large extent, if not entirely,
cut him off from the general operation of that process of Natural
Selection and survival of the fittest which up to their
appearance had been the law of the living world. They justify the
view that Man forms a new departure in the gradual unfolding of
Nature's predestined scheme. Knowledge, reason,
self-consciousness, will, are the attributes of Man."[1] It has
been a slow and gradual growth, and not until within the past
century has science organized knowledge-- so searched out the
secrets of Nature, as to control her powers, limit her scope and
transform her energies. The victory is so recent that the mental
attitude of the race is not yet adapted to the change. A large
proportion of our fellow creatures still regard nature as a
playground for demons and spirits to be exorcised or invoked.

[1] Sir E. Ray Lankester: Romanes Lecture, "Nature and Man,"
Oxford Univ. Press, 1905, p. 21.

Side by side, as substance and shadow--"in the dark backward and
abysm of time," in the dawn of the great civilizations of Egypt
and Babylon, in the bright morning of Greece, and in the full
noontide of modern life, together have grown up these two
diametrically opposite views of man's relation to nature, and
more particularly of his personal relation to the agencies of
disease.

The purpose of this course of lectures is to sketch the main
features of the growth of these two dominant ideas, to show how
they have influenced man at the different periods of his
evolution, how the lamp of reason, so early lighted in his soul,
burning now bright, now dim, has never, even in his darkest
period, been wholly extinguished, but retrimmed and refurnished
by his indomitable energies, now shines more and more towards the
perfect day. It is a glorious chapter in history, in which those
who have eyes to see may read the fulfilment of the promise of
Eden, that one day man should not only possess the earth, but
that he should have dominion over it! I propose to take an
aeroplane flight through the centuries, touching only on the tall
peaks from which may be had a panoramic view of the epochs
through which we pass.

ORIGIN OF MEDICINE

MEDICINE arose out of the primal sympathy of man with man; out of
the desire to help those in sorrow, need and sickness.

In the primal sympathy
Which having been must ever be;
In the soothing thoughts that spring
Out of human suffering.

The instinct of self-preservation, the longing to relieve a loved
one, and above all, the maternal passion--for such it
is--gradually softened the hard race of man--tum genus humanum
primum mollescere coepit. In his marvellous sketch of the
evolution of man, nothing illustrates more forcibly the
prescience of Lucretius than the picture of the growth of
sympathy: "When with cries and gestures they taught with broken
words that 'tis right for all men to have pity on the weak." I
heard the well-known medical historian, the late Dr. Payne,
remark that "the basis of medicine is sympathy and the desire to
help others, and whatever is done with this end must be called
medicine."

The first lessons came to primitive man by injuries, accidents,
bites of beasts and serpents, perhaps for long ages not
appreciated by his childlike mind, but, little by little, such
experiences crystallized into useful knowledge. The experiments
of nature made clear to him the relation of cause and effect, but
it is not likely, as Pliny suggests, that he picked up his
earliest knowledge from the observation of certain practices in
animals, as the natural phlebotomy of the plethoric hippopotamus,
or the use of emetics from the dog, or the use of enemata from
the ibis. On the other hand, Celsus is probably right in his
account of the origin of rational medicine. "Some of the sick on
account of their eagerness took food on the first day, some on
account of loathing abstained; and the disease in those who
refrained was more relieved. Some ate during a fever, some a
little before it, others after it had subsided, and those who had
waited to the end did best. For the same reason some at the
beginning of an illness used a full diet, others a spare, and the
former were made worse. Occurring daily, such things impressed
careful men, who noted what had best helped the sick, then began
to prescribe them. In this way medicine had its rise from the
experience of the recovery of some, of the death of others,
distinguishing the hurtful from the salutary things" (Book I).
The association of ideas was suggestive--the plant eyebright was
used for centuries in diseases of the eye because a black speck
in the flower suggested the pupil of the eye. The old herbals are
full of similar illustrations upon which, indeed, the so-called
doctrine of signatures depends. Observation came, and with it an
ever widening experience. No society so primitive without some
evidence of the existence of a healing art, which grew with its
growth, and became part of the fabric of its organization.

With primitive medicine, as such, I cannot deal, but I must refer
to the oldest existing evidence of a very extraordinary practice,
that of trephining. Neolithic skulls with disks of bone removed
have been found in nearly all parts of the world. Many careful
studies have been made of this procedure, particularly by the
great anatomist and surgeon, Paul Broca, and M.
Lucas-Championniere has covered the subject in a monograph.[2]
Broca suggests that the trephining was done by scratching or
scraping, but, as Lucas-Championniere holds, it was also done by
a series of perforations made in a circle with flint instruments,
and a round piece of skull in this way removed; traces of these
drill-holes have been found. The operation was done for epilepsy,
infantile convulsions, headache, and various cerebral diseases
believed to be caused by confined demons, to whom the hole gave a
ready method of escape.

[2] Lucas-Championniere: Trepanation neolithique, Paris, 1912.

The practice is still extant. Lucas-Championniere saw a Kabyle
thoubib who told him that it was quite common among his tribe; he
was the son of a family of trephiners, and had undergone the
operation four times, his father twelve times; he had three
brothers also experts; he did not consider it a dangerous
operation. He did it most frequently for pain in the head, and
occasionally for fracture.

The operation was sometimes performed upon animals. Shepherds
trephined sheep for the staggers. We may say that the modern
decompression operation, so much in vogue, is the oldest known
surgical procedure.

EGYPTIAN MEDICINE

OUT of the ocean of oblivion, man emerges in history in a highly
civilized state on the banks of the Nile, some sixty centuries
ago. After millenniums of a gradual upward progress, which can be
traced in the records of the stone age, civilization springs
forth Minerva-like, complete, and highly developed, in the Nile
Valley. In this sheltered, fertile spot, neolithic man first
raised himself above his kindred races of the Mediterranean
basin, and it is suggested that by the accidental discovery of
copper Egypt "forged the instruments that raised civilization out
of the slough of the Stone Age" (Elliot Smith). Of special
interest to us is the fact that one of the best-known names of
this earliest period is that of a physician--guide, philosopher
and friend of the king--a man in a position of wide trust and
importance. On leaving Cairo, to go up the Nile, one sees on the
right in the desert behind Memphis a terraced pyramid 190 feet in
height, "the first large structure of stone known in history." It
is the royal tomb of Zoser, the first of a long series with which
the Egyptian monarchy sought "to adorn the coming bulk of death."
The design of this is attributed to Imhotep, the first figure of
a physician to stand out clearly from the mists of antiquity. "In
priestly wisdom, in magic, in the formulation of wise proverbs,
in medicine and architecture, this remarkable figure of Zoser's
reign left so notable a reputation that his name was never
forgotten, and 2500 years after his death he had become a God of
Medicine, in whom the Greeks, who called him Imouthes, recognized
their own AEsculapius."[3] He became a popular god, not only
healing men when alive, but taking good care of them in the
journeys after death. The facts about this medicinae primus
inventor, as he has been called, may be gathered from Kurt
Sethe's study.[4] He seems to have corresponded very much to the
Greek Asklepios. As a god he is met with comparatively late,
between 700 and 332 B.C. Numerous bronze figures of him remain.
The oldest memorial mentioning him is a statue of one of his
priests, Amasis (No. 14765 in the British Museum). Ptolemy V
dedicated to him a temple on the island of Philae. His cult
increased much in later days, and a special temple was dedicated
to him near Memphis Sethe suggests that the cult of Imhotep gave
the inspiration to the Hermetic literature. The association of
Imhotep with the famous temple at Edfu is of special interest.

[3] Breasted: A History of the Ancient Egyptians, Scribner, New
York, 1908, p. 104.

[4] K. Sethe: Imhotep, der Asklepios der Aegypter, Leipzig, 1909
(Untersuchungen, etc., ed. Sethe, Vol. II, No. 4).

Egypt became a centre from which civilization spread to the other
peoples of the Mediterranean. For long centuries, to be learned
in all the wisdom of the Egyptians meant the possession of all
knowledge. We must come to the land of the Nile for the origin of
many of man's most distinctive and highly cherished beliefs. Not
only is there a magnificent material civilization, but in records
so marvellously preserved in stone we may see, as in a glass,
here clearly, there darkly, the picture of man's search after
righteousness, the earliest impressions of his moral awakening,
the beginnings of the strife in which he has always been engaged
for social justice and for the recognition of the rights of the
individual. But above all, earlier and more strongly than in any
other people, was developed the faith that looked through death,
to which, to this day, the noblest of their monuments bear an
enduring testimony. With all this, it is not surprising to find a
growth in the knowledge of practical medicine; but Egyptian
civilization illustrates how crude and primitive may remain a
knowledge of disease when conditioned by erroneous views of its
nature. At first, the priest and physician were identified, and
medicine never became fully dissociated from religion. Only in
the later periods did a special group of physicians arise who
were not members of priestly colleges.[6] Maspero states that the
Egyptians believed that disease and death were not natural and
inevitable, but caused by some malign influence which could use
any agency, natural or invisible, and very often belonged to the
invisible world. "Often, though, it belongs to the invisible
world, and only reveals itself by the malignity of its attacks:
it is a god, a spirit, the soul of a dead man, that has cunningly
entered a living person, or that throws itself upon him with
irresistible violence. Once in possession of the body, the evil
influence breaks the bones, sucks out the marrow, drinks the
blood, gnaws the intestines and the heart and devours the flesh.
The invalid perishes according to the progress of this
destructive work; and death speedily ensues, unless the evil
genius can be driven out of it before it has committed
irreparable damage. Whoever treats a sick person has therefore
two equally important duties to perform. He must first discover
the nature of the spirit in possession, and, if necessary, its
name, and then attack it, drive it out, or even destroy it. He
can only succeed by powerful magic, so he must be an expert in
reciting incantations, and skilful in making amulets. He must
then use medicine [drugs and diet] to contend with the disorders
which the presence of the strange being has produced in the
body."[6]

[5] Maspero: Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria, London, 1891, p.
119.

[6] Maspero: Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria, London, 1891, p.
118.

[7] W. Wreszinski: Die Medizin der alten Aegypter, Leipzig, J.
C. Hinrichs, 1909-1912.

In this way it came about that diseases were believed to be due
to hostile spirits, or caused by the anger of a god, so that
medicines, no matter how powerful, could only be expected to
assuage the pain; but magic alone, incantations, spells and
prayers, could remove the disease. Experience brought much of the
wisdom we call empirical, and the records, extending for
thousands of years, show that the Egyptians employed emetics,
purgatives, enemata, diuretics, diaphoretics and even bleeding.
They had a rich pharmacopoeia derived from the animal, vegetable
and mineral kingdoms. In the later periods, specialism reached a
remarkable development, and Herodotus remarks that the country
was full of physicians;--"One treats only the diseases of the
eye, another those of the head, the teeth, the abdomen, or the
internal organs."

Our knowledge of Egyptian medicine is derived largely from the
remarkable papyri dealing specially with this subject. Of these,
six or seven are of the first importance. The most famous is that
discovered by Ebers, dating from about 1500 B.C. A superb
document, one of the great treasures of the Leipzig Library, it
is 20.23 metres long and 30 centimetres high and in a state of
wonderful preservation. Others are the Kahun, Berlin, Hearst and
British Museum papyri. All these have now been published--the
last three quite recently, edited by Wreszinski.[7] I show here a
reproduction from which an idea may be had of these remarkable
documents. They are motley collections, filled with incantations,
charms, magical formulae, symbols, prayers and prescriptions for
all sorts of ailments. One is impressed by the richness of the
pharmacopoeia, and the high development which the art of pharmacy
must have attained. There were gargles, salves, snuffs,
inhalations, suppositories, fumigations, enemata, poultices and
plasters; and they knew the use of opium, hemlock, the copper
salts, squills and castor oil. Surgery was not very highly
developed, but the knife and actual cautery were freely used.
Ophthalmic surgery was practiced by specialists, and there are
many prescriptions in the papyri for ophthalmia.

One department of Egyptian medicine reached a high stage of
development, vis., hygiene. Cleanliness of the dwellings, of the
cities and of the person was regulated by law, and the priests
set a splendid example in their frequent ablutions, shaving of
the entire body, and the spotless cleanliness of their clothing.
As Diodorus remarks, so evenly ordered was their whole manner of
life that it was as if arranged by a learned physician rather
than by a lawgiver.

Two world-wide modes of practice found their earliest
illustration in ancient Egypt. Magic, the first of these,
represented the attitude of primitive man to nature, and really
was his religion. He had no idea of immutable laws, but regarded
the world about him as changeable and fickle like himself, and
"to make life go as he wished, he must be able to please and
propitiate or to coerce these forces outside himself."[8]

[8] L. Thorndike: The Place of Magic in the Intellectual History
of Europe, New York, 1905, p. 29.

The point of interest to us is that in the Pyramid Texts--"the
oldest chapter in human thinking preserved to us, the remotest
reach in the intellectual history of man which we are now able to
discern"[9]-- one of their six-fold contents relates to the
practice of magic. A deep belief existed as to its efficacy,
particularly in guiding the dead, who were said to be glorious by
reason of mouths equipped with the charms, prayers and ritual of
the Pyramid Texts, armed with which alone could the soul escape
the innumerable dangers and ordeals of the passage through
another world. Man has never lost his belief in the efficacy of
magic, in the widest sense of the term. Only a very few of the
most intellectual nations have escaped from its shackles. Nobody
else has so clearly expressed the origins and relations of magic
as Pliny in his "Natural History."[10] "Now, if a man consider
the thing well, no marvaile it is that it hath continued thus in
so great request and authoritie; for it is the onely Science
which seemeth to comprise in itselfe three possessions besides,
which have the command and rule of mans mind above any other
whatsoever. For to begin withall, no man doubteth but that
Magicke tooke root first, and proceeded from Physicke, under the
presence of maintaining health, curing, and preventing diseases:
things plausible to the world, crept and insinuated farther into
the heart of man, with a deepe conceit of some high and divine
matter therein more than ordinarie, and in comparison whereof,
all other Physicke was but basely accounted. And having thus made
way and entrance, the better to fortifie it selfe, and to give a
goodly colour and lustre to those fair and flattering promises of
things, which our nature is most given to hearken after, on goeth
the habite also and cloake of religion: a point, I may tell you,
that even in these daies holdeth captivate the spirit of man, and
draweth away with it a greater part of the world, and nothing so
much. But not content with this successe and good proceeding, to
gather more strength and win a greater name, shee entermingled
with medicinable receipts and religious ceremonies, the skill of
Astrologie and arts Mathematicall; presuming upon this, That all
men by nature are very curious and desirous to know their future
fortunes, and what shall betide them hereafter, persuading
themselves, that all such foreknowledge dependeth upon the course
and influence of the starres, which give the truest and most
certain light of things to come. Being thus wholly possessed of
men, and having their senses and understanding by this meanes
fast ynough bound with three sure chains, no marvell if this art
grew in processe of time to such an head, that it was and is at
this day reputed by most nations of the earth for the paragon and
cheefe of all sciences: insomuch as the mightie kings and
monarchs of the Levant are altogether ruled and governed
thereby."

[9] Breasted: Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient
Egypt, New York, 1912, p. 84.

[10] The Historie of the World, commonly called the Naturall
Historie of C. Plinius Secundus, translated into English by
Philemon Holland, Doctor in Physieke, London, 1601, Vol. II, p.
371, Bk. XXX, Chap. I, Sect. 1.

The second world-wide practice which finds its earliest record
among the Egyptians is the use secretions and parts of the animal
body as medicine. The practice was one of great antiquity with
primitive man, but the papyri already mentioned contain the
earliest known records. Saliva, urine, bile, faeces, various
parts of the body, dried and powdered, worms, insects, snakes
were important ingredients in the pharmacopoeia. The practice
became very widespread throughout the ancient world. Its extent
and importance may be best gathered from chapters VII and VIII in
the 28th book of Pliny's "Natural History."  Several remedies are
mentioned as derived from man; others from the elephant, lion,
camel, crocodile, and some seventy-nine are prepared from the
hyaena. The practice was widely prevalent throughout the Middle
Ages, and the pharmacopoeia of the seventeenth and even of the
eighteenth century contains many extraordinary ingredients. "The
Royal Pharmacopoeia" of Moses Charras (London ed., 1678), the
most scientific work of the day, is full of organotherapy and
directions for the preparation of medicines from the most
loathsome excretions. A curious thing is that with the
discoveries of the mummies a belief arose as to the great
efficacy of powdered mummy in various maladies. As Sir Thomas
Browne remarks in his "Urn Burial": "Mummy has become
merchandize. Mizraim cures wounds, and Pharaoh is sold for
balsams."

One formula in everyday use has come to us in a curious way from
the Egyptians. In the Osiris myth, the youthful Horus loses an
eye in his battle with Set. This eye, the symbol of sacrifice,
became, next to the sacred beetle, the most common talisman of
the country, and all museums are rich in models of the Horus eye
in glass or stone.

"When alchemy or chemistry, which had its cradle in Egypt, and
derived its name from Khami, an old title for this country,
passed to the hands of the Greeks, and later of the Arabs, this
sign passed with it. It was also adopted to some extent by the
Gnostics of the early Christian church in Egypt. In a cursive
form it is found in mediaeval translations of the works of
Ptolemy the astrologer, as the sign of the planet Jupiter. As
such it was placed upon horoscopes and upon formula containing
drugs made for administration to the body, so that the harmful
properties of these drugs might be removed under the influence of
the lucky planet. At present, in a slightly modified form, it
still figures at the top of prescriptions written daily in Great
Britain (Rx)."[11]

[11] John D. Comrie: Medicine among the Assyrians and Egyptians
in 1500 B.C., Edinburgh Medical Journal, 1909, n. s., II, 119.

For centuries Egyptian physicians had a great reputation, and in
the Odyssey (Bk. IV), Polydamna, the wife of Thonis, gives
medicinal plants to Helen in Egypt--"a country producing an
infinite number of drugs . . . where each physician possesses
knowledge above all other men."  Jeremiah (xlvi, 11) refers to
the virgin daughter of Egypt, who should in vain use many
medicines. Herodotus tells that Darius had at his court certain
Egyptians, whom he reckoned the best skilled physicians in all
the world, and he makes the interesting statement that: "Medicine
is practiced among them on a plan of separation; each physician
treats a single disorder, and no more: thus the country swarms
with medical practitioners, some under taking to cure diseases of
the eye, others of the head, others again of the teeth, others of
the intestines, and some those which are not local."[12]

[12] The History of Herodotus, Blakesley's ed., Bk. II, 84.

A remarkable statement is made by Pliny, in the discussion upon
the use of radishes, which are said to cure a "Phthisicke," or
ulcer of the lungs--"proofe whereof was found and seen in AEgypt
by occasion that the KK. there, caused dead bodies to be cut up,
and anatomies to be made, for to search out the maladies whereof
men died."[13]

[13 Pliny, Holland's translation, Bk. XIX, Chap. V, Sect. 26.

The study of the anatomy of mummies has thrown a very interesting
light upon the diseases of the ancient Egyptians, one of the most
prevalent of which appears to have been osteo-arthritis. This has
been studied by Elliot Smith, Wood Jones, Ruffer and Rietti. The
majority of the lesions appear to have been the common
osteo-arthritis, which involved not only the men, but many of the
pet animals kept in the temples. In a much higher proportion
apparently than in modern days, the spinal column was involved.
It is interesting to note that the "determinative" of old age in
hieroglyphic writing is the picture of a man afflicted with
arthritis deformans. Evidences of tuberculosis, rickets and
syphilis, according to these authors, have not been found.

A study of the internal organs has been made by Ruffer, who has
shown that arterio-sclerosis with calcification was a common
disease 8500 years ago; and he holds that it could not have been
associated with hard work or alcohol, for the ancient Egyptians
did not drink spirits, and they had practically the same hours of
work as modern Egyptians, with every seventh day free.

ASSYRIAN AND BABYLONIAN MEDICINE

OF equally great importance in the evolution of medicine was the
practically contemporary civilization in Mesopotamia. Science
here reached a much higher stage then in the valley of the Nile.
An elaborate scheme of the universe was devised, a system growing
out of the Divine Will, and a recognition for the first time of a
law guiding and controlling heaven and earth alike. Here, too,
we find medicine ancillary to religion. Disease was due to evil
spirits or demons. "These 'demons'--invisible to the naked eye
were the precursors of the modern 'germs' and 'microbes,' while
the incantations recited by the priests are the early equivalents
of the physician's prescriptions. There were different
incantations for different diseases; and they were as mysterious
to the masses as are the mystic formulas of the modern physician
to the bewildered, yet trusting, patient. Indeed, their
mysterious character added to the power supposed to reside in the
incantations for driving the demons away. Medicinal remedies
accompanied the recital of the incantations, but despite the
considerable progress made by such nations of hoary antiquity as
the Egyptians and Babylonians in the diagnosis and treatment of
common diseases, leading in time to the development of an
extensive pharmacology, so long as the cure of disease rested
with the priests, the recital of sacred formulas, together with
rites that may be conveniently grouped under the head of
sympathetic magic, was regarded as equally essential with the
taking of the prescribed remedies."[14]

[14] Morris Jastrow: The Liver in Antiquity and the Beginnings
of Anatomy. Transactions College of Physicians, Philadelphia,
1907, 3. s., XXIX, 117-138.

Three points of interest may be referred to in connection with
Babylonian medicine. Our first recorded observations on anatomy
are in connection with the art of divination-- the study of the
future by the interpretation of certain signs. The student
recognized two divisions of divination-- the involuntary, dealing
with the interpretation of signs forced upon our attention, such
as the phenomena of the heavens, dreams, etc., and voluntary
divination, the seeking of signs, more particularly through the
inspection of sacrificial animals. This method reached an
extraordinary development among the Babylonians, and the cult
spread to the Etruscans, Hebrews, and later to the Greeks and
Romans.

Of all the organs inspected in a sacrificial animal the liver,
from its size, position and richness in blood, impressed the
early observers as the most important of the body. Probably on
account of the richness in blood it came to be regarded as the
seat of life--indeed, the seat of the soul. From this important
position the liver was not dislodged for many centuries, and in
the Galenic physiology it shared with the heart and the brain in
the triple control of the natural, animal and vital spirits. Many
expressions in literature indicate how persistent was this
belief. Among the Babylonians, the word "liver" was used in hymns
and other compositions precisely as we use the word "heart," and
Jastrow gives a number of illustrations from Hebrew, Greek and
Latin sources illustrating this usage.

The belief arose that through the inspection of this important
organ in the sacrificial animal the course of future events could
be predicted. "The life or soul, as the seat of life, in the
sacrificial animal is, therefore, the divine element in the
animal, and the god in accepting the animal, which is involved in
the act of bringing it as an offering to a god, identifies
himself with the animal--becomes, as it were, one with it. The
life in the animal is a reflection of his own life, and since the
fate of men rests with the gods, if one can succeed in entering
into the mind of a god, and thus ascertain what he purposes to
do, the key for the solution of the problem as to what the future
has in store will have been found. The liver being the centre of
vitality--the seat of the mind, therefore, as well as of the
emotions--it becomes in the case of the sacrificial animal,
either directly identical with the mind of the god who accepts
the animal, or, at all events, a mirror in which the god's mind
is reflected; or, to use another figure, a watch regulated to be
in sympathetic and perfect accord with a second watch. If,
therefore, one can read the liver of the sacrificial animal, one
enters, as it were, into the workshop of the divine will."[15]

[15] Morris Jastrow: loc. cit., p. 122.

Hepatoscopy thus became, among the Babylonians, of extraordinary
complexity, and the organ of the sheep was studied and figured as
early as 3000 B.C. In the divination rites, the lobes, the
gall-bladder, the appendages of the upper lobe and the markings
were all inspected with unusual care. The earliest known
anatomical model, which is here shown, is the clay model of a
sheep's liver with the divination text dating from about 2000
B.C., from which Jastrow has worked out the modern anatomical
equivalents of the Babylonian terms. To reach a decision on any
point, the phenomena of the inspection of the liver were
carefully recorded, and the interpretations rested on a more or
less natural and original association of ideas. Thus, if the
gall-bladder were swollen on the right side, it pointed to an
increase in the strength of the King's army, and was favorable;
if on the left side, it indicated rather success of the enemy,
and was unfavorable. If the bile duct was long, it pointed to a
long life. Gallstones are not infrequently mentioned in the
divination texts and might be favorable, or unfavorable. Various
interpretations were gathered by the scribes in the reference
note-books which serve as guides for the interpretation of the
omens and for text-books of instructions in the temple schools
(Jastrow).

The art of divination spread widely among the neighboring
nations. There are many references in the Bible to the practice.
The elders of Moab and Midian came to Balaam "with the rewards of
divination in their hand" (Numbers xxii, 7). Joseph's cup of
divination was found in Benjamin's sack (Genesis xliv, 5, 12);
and in Ezekiel (xxi, 21) the King of Babylon stood at the parting
of the way and looked in the liver. Hepatoscopy was also
practiced by the Etruscans, and from them it passed to the Greeks
and the Romans, among whom it degenerated into a more or less
meaningless form. But Jastrow states that in Babylonia and
Assyria, where for several thousand years the liver was
consistently employed as the sole organ of divination, there are
no traces of the rite having fallen into decay, or having been
abused by the priests.

In Roman times, Philostratus gives an account of the trial of
Apollonius of Tyana,[16] accused of human hepatoscopy by
sacrificing a boy in the practice of magic arts against the
Emperor. "The liver, which the experts say is the very tripod of
their art, does not consist of pure blood; for the heart retains
all the uncontaminated blood, and irrigates the whole body with
it by the conduits of the arteries; whereas the gall, which is
situated next the liver, is stimulated by anger and depressed by
fear into the hollows of the liver."

We have seen how early and how widespread was the belief in
amulets and charms against the occult powers of darkness. One
that has persisted with extraordinary tenacity is the belief in
the Evil Eye the power of certain individuals to injure with a
look. Of general belief in the older civilizations, and referred
to in several places in the Bible, it passed to Greece and Rome,
and today is still held fervently in many parts of Europe. The
sign of "le corna,"--the first and fourth fingers extended, the
others turned down and the thumb closed over them,--still used
against the Evil Eye in Italy, was a mystic sign used by the
Romans in the festival of Lemuralia. And we meet with the belief
also in this country. A child with hemiplegia, at the Infirmary
for Diseases of the Nervous System, Philadelphia, from the
central part of Pennsylvania, was believed by its parents to have
had the Evil Eye cast upon it.

The second contribution of Babylonia and Assyria to medicine--
one that affected mankind profoundly--relates to the supposed
influence of the heavenly bodies upon man's welfare. A belief
that the stars in their courses fought for or against him arose
early in their civilizations, and directly out of their studies
on astrology and mathematics. The Macrocosm, the heavens that
"declare the glory of God," reflect, as in a mirror, the
Microcosm, the daily life of man on earth. The first step was the
identification of the sun, moon and stars with the gods of the
pantheon. Assyrian astronomical observations show an
extraordinary development of practical knowledge. The movements
of the sun and moon and of the planets were studied; the
Assyrians knew the precession of the equinoxes and many of the
fundamental laws of astronomy, and the modern nomenclature dates
from their findings. In their days the signs of the zodiac
corresponded practically with the twelve constellations whose
names they still bear, each division being represented by the
symbol of some god, as the Scorpion, the Ram, the Twins, etc.
"Changes in the heavens . . . portended changes on earth. The
Biblical expression 'hosts of heaven' for the starry universe
admirably reflects the conception held by the Babylonian
astrologers. Moon, planets and stars constituted an army in
constant activity, executing military manoeuvres which were the
result of deliberation and which had in view a fixed purpose. It
was the function of the priest-- the barqu, or 'inspector,' as
the astrologer as well as the 'inspector' of the liver was
called--to discover this purpose. In order to do so, a system of
interpretation was evolved, less logical and less elaborate than
the system of hepatoscopy, which was analyzed in the preceding
chapter, but nevertheless meriting attention both as an example
of the pathetic yearning of men to peer into the minds of the
gods, and of the influence that Babylonian-Assyrian astrology
exerted throughout the ancient world" (Jastrow).[17]

[16] Philostratus: Apollonius of Tyana, Bk. VIII, Chap. VII,
Phillimore's transl., Oxford, 1912, II, 233. See, also, Justin:
Apologies, edited by Louis Pautigny, Paris, 1904, p. 39.

[17] M. Jastrow: Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in
Babylonia and Assyria, New York, 1911, p. 210.

With the rationalizing influence of the Persians the hold of
astrology weakened, and according to Jastrow it was this, in
combination with Hebrew and Greek modes of thought, that led the
priests in the three centuries following the Persian occupation,
to exchange their profession of diviners for that of astronomers;
and this, he says, marks the beginning of the conflict between
religion and science. At first an expression of primitive
"science," astrology became a superstition, from which the human
mind has not yet escaped. In contrast to divination, astrology
does not seem to have made much impression on the Hebrews and
definite references in the Bible are scanty. From Babylonia it
passed to Greece (without, however, exerting any particular
influence upon Greek medicine). Our own language is rich in words
of astral significance derived from the Greek, e.g., disaster.

The introduction of astrology into Europe has a passing interest.
Apparently the Greeks had made important advances in astronomy
before coming in contact with the Babylonians,--who, in all
probability, received from the former a scientific conception of
the universe. "In Babylonia and Assyria we have astrology first
and astronomy afterwards, in Greece we have the sequence
reversed--astronomy first and astrology afterwards"
(Jastrow).[18]

[18] M. Jastrow: Aspects of Religious Belief and Practice in
Babylonia and Assyria, New York, 1911, p. 256.

It is surprising to learn that, previous to their contact with
the Greeks, astrology as relating to the individual-- that is to
say, the reading of the stars to determine the conditions under
which the individual was born--had no place in the cult of the
Babylonians and Assyrians. The individualistic spirit led the
Greek to make his gods take note of every action in his life, and
his preordained fate might be read in the stars.--"A connecting
link between the individual and the movements in the heavens was
found in an element which they shared in common. Both man and
stars moved in obedience to forces from which there was no
escape. An inexorable law controlling the planets corresponded to
an equally inexorable fate ordained for every individual from his
birth. Man was a part of nature and subject to its laws. The
thought could therefore arise that, if the conditions in the
heavens were studied under which a man was born, that man's
future could be determined in accord with the beliefs associated
with the position of the planets rising or visible at the time of
birth or, according to other views, at the time of conception.
These views take us back directly to the system of astrology
developed by Babylonian baru priests. The basis on which the
modified Greek system rests is likewise the same that we have
observed in Babylonia--a correspondence between heaven and earth,
but with this important difference, that instead of the caprice
of the gods we have the unalterable fate controlling the entire
universe--the movements of the heavens and the life of the
individual alike" (Jastrow).[19]

[19] Ibid., pp. 257-258.

From this time on until the Renaissance, like a shadow, astrology
follows astronomy. Regarded as two aspects of the same subject,
the one, natural astrology, the equivalent of astronomy, was
concerned with the study of the heavens, the other, judicial
astrology, was concerned with the casting of horoscopes, and
reading in the stars the fate of the individual.

As I mentioned, Greek science in its palmy days seems to have
been very free from the bad features of astrology. Gilbert
Murray remarks that "astrology fell upon the Hellenistic mind as
a new disease falls upon some remote island people."  But in the
Greek conquest of the Roman mind, astrology took a prominent
role. It came to Rome as part of the great Hellenizing movement,
and the strength of its growth may be gauged from the edicts
issued against astrologers as early as the middle of the second
century B.C. In his introduction to his recent edition of Book II
of the Astronomicon of Manilius, Garrod traces the growth of the
cult, which under the Empire had an extraordinary vogue. "Though
these [heavenly] signs be far removed from us, yet does he [the
god] so make their influences felt, that they give to nations
their life and their fate and to each man his own character."[20]
Oracles were sought on all occasions, from the planting of a tree
to the mating of a horse, and the doctrine of the stars
influenced deeply all phases of popular thought and religion.
The professional astrologers, as Pliny[21] says, were Chaldeans,
Egyptians and Greeks. The Etruscans, too, the professional
diviners of Rome, cultivated the science. Many of these "Isiaci
conjectores" and "astrologi de circo" were worthless charlatans,
but on the whole the science seems to have attracted the
attention of thoughtful men of the period. Garrod quotes the
following remarkable passage from Tacitus: "My judgment wavers,"
he says, "I dare not say whether it be fate and necessity
immutable which governs the changing course of human affairs--or
just chance. Among the wisest of the ancients, as well as among
their apes, you will find a conflict of opinion. Many hold
fixedly the idea that our beginning and our end--that man
himself--is nothing to the Gods at all. The wicked are in
prosperity and the good meet tribulation. Others believe that
Fate and the facts of this world work together. But this
connection they trace not to planetary influences but to a
concatenation of natural causes. We choose our life that is
free: but the choice once made, what awaits us is fixed and
ordered. Good and evil are different from the vulgar opinion of
them. Often those who seem to battle with adversity are to be
accounted blessed; but the many, even in their prosperity, are
miserable. It needs only to bear misfortune bravely, while the
fool perishes in his wealth. Outside these rival schools stands
the man in the street. No one will take from him his conviction
that at our birth are fixed for us the things that shall be. If
some things fall out differently from what was foretold, that is
due to the deceit of men that speak what they know not: calling
into contempt a science to which past and present alike bear a
glorious testimony" (Ann. vi, 22).

[20] Manili Astronomicon Liber II, ed. H. W. Garrod, Oxford,
1911, p. lxix, and II, ll. 84-86.

[21] Pliny: Natural History, Bk. XVIII, Chap. XXV, Sect. 57.

Cato waged war on the Greek physicians and forbade "his uilicus
all resort to haruspicem, augurem, hariolum Chaldaeum," but in
vain; so widespread became the belief that the great philosopher,
Panaetius (who died about 111 B.C.), and two of his friends alone
among the stoics, rejected the claims of astrology as a science
(Garrod). So closely related was the subject of mathematics that
it, too, fell into disfavor, and in the Theodosian code sentence
of death was passed upon mathematicians. Long into the Middle
Ages, the same unholy alliance with astrology and divination
caused mathematics to be regarded with suspicion, and even
Abelard calls it a nefarious study.

The third important feature in Babylonian medicine is the
evidence afforded by the famous Hammurabi Code (circa 2000
B.C.)-- a body of laws, civil and religious, many of which relate
to the medical profession. This extraordinary document  is a
black diorite block 8 feet high, once containing 21 columns on
the obverse, 16 and 28 columns on the reverse, with 2540 lines of
writing of which now 1114 remain, and surmounted by the figure of
the king receiving the law from the Sun-god. Copies of this were
set up in Babylon "that anyone oppressed or injured, who had a
tale of woe to tell, might come and stand before his image, that
of a king of righteousness, and there read the priceless orders
of the King, and from the written monument solve his problem"
(Jastrow). From the enactments of the code we gather that the
medical profession must have been in a highly organized state,
for not only was practice regulated in detail, but a scale of
fees was laid down, and penalties exacted for malpraxis.
Operations were performed, and the veterinary art was recognized.
An interesting feature, from which it is lucky that we have in
these days escaped, is the application of the "lex talionis"-- an
eye for an eye, bone for a bone, and tooth for a tooth, which is
a striking feature of the code.

Some of the laws of the code may be quoted:

Paragraph 215. If a doctor has treated a gentleman for a severe
wound with a bronze lances and has cured the man, or has opened
an abscess of the eye for a gentleman with the bronze lances and
has cured the eye of the gentleman, he shall take ten shekels of
silver.

218. If the doctor has treated a gentleman for a severe wound
with a lances of bronze and has caused the gentleman to die, or
has opened an abscess of the eye for a gentleman and has caused
the loss of the gentleman's eye, one shall cut off his hands.

219. If a doctor has treated the severe wound of a slave of a
poor man with a bronze lances and has caused his death, he shall
render slave for slave.

220. If he has opened his abscess with a bronze lances and has
made him lose his eye, he shall pay money, half his price.

221. If a doctor has cured the shattered limb of a gentleman, or
has cured the diseased bowel, the patient shall give five shekels
of silver to the doctor.

224. If a cow doctor or a sheep doctor has treated a cow or a
sheep for a severe wound and cured it, the owner of the cow or
sheep shall give one-sixth of a shekel of silver to the doctor as
his fee.[22]

[22] The Oldest Code of Laws in the World; translated by C. H. W.
Johns, Edinburgh, 1903.

HEBREW MEDICINE

THE medicine of the Old Testament betrays both Egyptian and
Babylonian influences; the social hygiene is a reflex of
regulations the origin of which may be traced in the Pyramid
Texts and in the papyri. The regulations in the Pentateuch codes
revert in part to primitive times, in part represent advanced
views of hygiene. There are doubts if the Pentateuch code really
goes back to the days of Moses, but certainly someone "learned in
the wisdom of the Egyptians" drew it up. As Neuburger briefly
summarizes:

"The commands concern prophylaxis and suppression of epidemics,
suppression of venereal disease and prostitution, care of the
skin, baths, food, housing and clothing, regulation of labour,
sexual life, discipline of the people, etc. Many of these
commands, such as Sabbath rest, circumcision, laws concerning
food (interdiction of blood and pork), measures concerning
menstruating and lying-in women and those suffering from
gonorrhoea, isolation of lepers, and hygiene of the camp, are, in
view of the conditions of the climate, surprisingly
rational."[23]

[23] Neuburger: History of Medicine, Oxford University Press,
1910, Vol. I, p. 38.

Divination, not very widely practiced, was borrowed, no doubt,
from Babylonia. Joseph's cup was used for the purpose, and in
Numbers, the elders of Balak went to Balaam with the rewards of
divination in their hands. The belief in enchantments and
witchcraft was universal, and the strong enactments against
witches in the Old Testament made a belief in them almost
imperative until more rational beliefs came into vogue in the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Whatever view we may take of it, the medicine of the New
Testament is full of interest. Divination is only referred to
once in the Acts (xvi, 16), where a damsel is said to be
possessed of a spirit of divination "which brought her masters
much gain by soothsaying."  There is only one mention of
astrology (Acts vii, 43); there are no witches, neither are there
charms or incantations. The diseases mentioned are numerous:
demoniac possession, convulsions, paralysis, skin diseases,--as
leprosy,--dropsy, haemorrhages, fever, fluxes, blindness and
deafness. And the cure is simple usually a fiat of the Lord,
rarely with a prayer, or with the use of means such as spittle.
They are all miraculous, and the same power was granted to the
apostles--"power against unclean spirits, to cast them out, to
heal all manner of sickness and all manner of disease." And more
than this, not only the blind received their sight, the lame
walked, the lepers were cleansed, the deaf heard, but even the
dead were raised up. No question of the mandate. He who went
about doing good was a physician of the body as well as of the
soul, and could the rich promises of the Gospel have been
fulfilled, there would have been no need of a new dispensation of
science. It may be because the children of this world have never
been able to accept its hard sayings--the insistence upon
poverty, upon humility, upon peace that Christianity has lost
touch no less with the practice than with the principles of its
Founder. Yet, all through the centuries, the Church has never
wholly abandoned the claim to apostolic healing; nor is there any
reason why she should. To the miraculous there should be no time
limit--only conditions have changed and nowadays to have a
mountain-moving faith is not easy. Still, the possession is
cherished, and it adds enormously to the spice and variety of
life to know that men of great intelligence, for example, my good
friend, Dr. James J. Walsh of New York, believe in the miracles
of Lourdes.[24] Only a few weeks ago, the Bishop of London
followed with great success, it is said, the practice of St.
James. It does not really concern us much--as Oriental views of
disease and its cure have had very little influence on the
evolution of scientific medicine--except in illustration of the
persistence of an attitude towards disease always widely
prevalent, and, indeed, increasing. Nor can we say that the
medicine of our great colleague, St. Luke, the Beloved Physician,
whose praise is in the Gospels, differs so fundamentally from
that of the other writings of the New Testament that we can claim
for it a scientific quality. The stories of the miracles have
technical terms and are in a language adorned by medical
phraseology, but the mental attitude towards disease is certainly
not that of a follower of Hippocrates, nor even of a
scientifically trained contemporary of Dioscorides.[25]

[24] Psychotherapy, New York, 1919, p. 79, "I am convinced that
miracles happen there. There is more than natural power
manifest."

[25] See Luke the Physician, by Harnack, English ed., 1907, and
W. K. Hobart, The Medical Language of St. Luke, 1882.

CHINESE AND JAPANESE MEDICINE

CHINESE medicine illustrates the condition at which a highly
intellectual people may arrive, among whom thought and
speculation were restricted by religious prohibitions. Perhaps
the chief interest in its study lies in the fact that we may see
today the persistence of views about disease similar to those
which prevailed in ancient Egypt and Babylonia. The Chinese
believe in a universal animism, all parts being animated by gods
and spectres, and devils swarm everywhere in numbers
incalculable. The universe was spontaneously created by the
operation of its Tao, "composed of two souls, the Yang and the
Yin; the Yang represents light, warmth, production, and life, as
also the celestial sphere from which all those blessings emanate;
the Yin is darkness, cold, death, and the earth, which, unless
animated by the Yang or heaven, is dark, cold, dead. The Yang and
the Yin are divided into an infinite number of spirits
respectively good and bad, called shen and kwei; every man and
every living being contains a shen and a kwei, infused at birth,
and departing at death, to return to the Yang and the Yin. Thus
man with his dualistic soul is a microcosmos, born from the
Macrocosmos spontaneously. Even every object is animated, as
well as the Universe of which it is a part."[26]

[26] J. J. M. de Groot: Religious System of China, Vol. VI,
Leyden, 1910, p. 929.

In the animistic religion of China, the Wu represented a group of
persons of both sexes, who wielded, with respect to the world of
spirits, capacities and powers not possessed by the rest of men.
Many practitioners of Wu were physicians who, in addition to
charms and enchantments, used death-banishing medicinal herbs. Of
great antiquity, Wu-ism has changed in some ways its outward
aspect, but has not altered its fundamental characters. The Wu,
as exorcising physicians and practitioners of the medical art,
may be traced in classical literature to the time of Confucius.
In addition to charms and spells, there were certain famous poems
which were repeated, one of which, by Han Yu, of the T'ang epoch,
had an extraordinary vogue. De Groot says that the "Ling," or
magical power of this poem must have been enormous, seeing that
its author was a powerful mandarin, and also one of the loftiest
intellects China has produced. This poetic febrifuge is
translated in full by de Groot (VI, 1054-1055), and the demon of
fever, potent chiefly in the autumn, is admonished to begone to
the clear and limpid waters of the deep river.

In the High Medical College at Court, in the T'ang Dynasty, there
were four classes of Masters, attached to its two High Medical
Chiefs: Masters of Medicine, of Acupuncture, of Manipulation,
and two Masters for Frustration by means of Spells.

Soothsaying and exorcism may be traced far back to the fifth and
sixth centuries B.C.

In times of epidemic the specialists of Wu-ism, who act as seers,
soothsayers and exorcists, engage in processions, stripped to the
waist, dancing in a frantic, delirious state, covering themselves
with blood by means of prick-balls, or with needles thrust
through their tongues, or sitting or stretching themselves on
nail points or rows of sword edges. In this way they frighten
the spectres of disease. They are nearly all young, and are
spoken of as "divining youths," and they use an exorcising magic
based on the principle that legions of spectres prone to evil
live in the machine of the world. (De Groot, VI, 983-985.)

The Chinese believe that it is the Tao, or "Order of the
Universe," which affords immunity from evil, and according to
whether or no the birth occurred in a beneficent year, dominated
by four double cyclical characters, the horoscope is "heavy" or
"light." Those with light horoscopes are specially prone to
incurable complaints, but much harm can be averted if such an
individual be surrounded with exorcising objects, if he be given
proper amulets to wear and proper medicines to swallow, and by
selecting for him auspicious days and hours.

Two or three special points may be referred to. The doctrine of
the pulse reached such extraordinary development that the whole
practice of the art centred round its different characters. There
were scores of varieties, which in complication and detail put to
confusion the complicated system of some of the old Graeco-Roman
writers. The basic idea seems to have been that each part and
organ had its own proper pulse, and just as in a stringed
instrument each chord has its own tone, so in the human body, if
the pulses were in harmony, it meant health; if there was
discord, it meant disease. These Chinese views reached Europe in
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and there is a very
elaborate description of them in Floyer's well-known book.[27]
And the idea of harmony in the pulse is met with into the
eighteenth century.

[27] Sir John Floyer: The Physician's Pulse Watch, etc., London,
1707.

Organotherapy was as extensively practiced in China as in Egypt.
Parts of organs, various secretions and excretions are very
commonly used. One useful method of practice reached a
remarkable development, viz., the art of acupuncture--the
thrusting of fine needles more or less deeply into the affected
part. There are some 388 spots on the body in which acupuncture
could be performed, and so well had long experience taught them
as to the points of danger, that the course of the arteries may
be traced by the tracts that are avoided. The Chinese practiced
inoculation for smallpox as early as the eleventh century.

Even the briefest sketch of the condition of Chinese medicine
leaves the impression of the appalling stagnation and sterility
that may afflict a really intelligent people for thousands of
years. It is doubtful if they are today in a very much more
advanced condition than were the Egyptians at the time when the
Ebers Papyrus was written. From one point of view it is an
interesting experiment, as illustrating the state in which a
people may remain who have no knowledge of anatomy, physiology or
pathology.

Early Japanese medicine has not much to distinguish it from the
Chinese. At first purely theurgic, the practice was later
characterized by acupuncture and a refined study of the pulse. It
has an extensive literature, largely based upon the Chinese, and
extending as far back as the beginning of the Christian era.
European medicine was introduced by the Portuguese and the Dutch,
whose "factory" or "company" physicians were not without
influence upon practice. An extraordinary stimulus was given to
the belief in European medicine by a dissection made by Mayeno in
1771 demonstrating the position of the organs as shown in the
European anatomical tables, and proving the Chinese figures to be
incorrect. The next day a translation into Japanese of the
anatomical work of Kulmus was begun, and from its appearance in
1773 may be dated the commencement of reforms in medicine. In
1793, the work of de Gorter on internal medicine was translated,
and it is interesting to know that before the so-called "opening
of Japan" many European works on medicine had been published. In
1857, a Dutch medical school was started in Yedo. Since the
political upheaval in 1868, Japan has made rapid progress in
scientific medicine, and its institutions and teachers are now
among the best known in the world.[28]

[28] See Y. Fujikawa, Geschichte der Medizin in Japan, Tokyo,
1911.

CHAPTER II

GREEK MEDICINE

OGRAIAE gentis decus! let us sing with Lucretius, one of the
great interpreters of Greek thought. How grand and how true is
his paean!

Out of the night, out of the blinding night
Thy beacon flashes;--hail, beloved light
Of Greece and Grecian; hail, for in the mirk
Thou cost reveal each valley and each height.

Thou art my leader, and the footprints shine,
Wherein I plant my own....

* * * * *

The world was shine to read, and having read,
Before thy children's eyes thou didst outspread
The fruitful page of knowledge, all the wealth
Of wisdom, all her plenty for their bread.

[Bk. III.--Translated by D. A. Slater.]

Let us come out of the murky night of the East, heavy with
phantoms,
into the bright daylight of the West, into the company of men
whose
thoughts made our thoughts, and whose ways made our ways--the men
who first dared to look on nature with the clear eyes of the
mind.

Browning's famous poem, "Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came,"
is an allegory of the pilgrimage of man through the dark places
of the earth, on a dismal path beset with demons, and strewn with
the wreckage of generations of failures. In his ear tolled the
knell of all the lost adventurers, his peers, all lost, lost
within sight of the dark Tower itself--

The round squat turret, blind as the fool's heart,
Built of brown stone, without a counterpart
In the whole world.

lost in despair at an all-encircling mystery. Not so the Greek
Childe Roland who set the slug-horn to his lips and blew a
challenge. Neither Shakespeare nor Browning tells us what
happened, and the old legend, Childe Roland, is the incarnation
of the Greek spirit, the young, light-hearted master of the
modern world, at whose trumpet blast the dark towers of
ignorance, superstition and deceit have vanished into thin air,
as the baseless fabric of a dream. Not that the jeering phantoms
have flown! They still beset, in varied form, the path of each
generation; but the Achaian Childe Roland gave to man
self-confidence, and taught him the lesson that nature's
mysteries, to be solved, must be challenged. On a portal of one
of the temples of Isis in Egypt was carved: "I am whatever hath
been, is, or ever will be, and my veil no man has yet lifted."

The veil of nature the Greek lifted and herein lies his value to
us. What of this Genius? How did it arise among the peoples of
the AEgean Sea? Those who wish to know the rock whence science
was hewn may read the story told in vivid language by Professor
Gomperz in his "Greek Thinkers," the fourth volume of which has
recently been published (Murray, 1912; Scribner, 1912). In 1912,
there was published a book by one of the younger Oxford teachers,
"The Greek Genius and Its Meaning to Us,"[1] from which those who
shrink from the serious study of Gomperz' four volumes may learn
something of the spirit of Greece. Let me quote a few lines from
his introduction:

[1] By R. W. Livingstone, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1912 [2d ed.,
revised, 1915].

"Europe has nearly four million square miles; Lancashire has
1,700; Attica has 700. Yet this tiny country has given us an art
which we, with it and all that the world has done since it for
our models, have equalled perhaps, but not surpassed. It has
given us the staple of our vocabulary in every domain of thought
and knowledge. Politics, tyranny, democracy, anarchism,
philosophy, physiology, geology, history--these are all Greek
words. It has seized and up to the present day kept hold of our
higher education. It has exercised an unfailing fascination,
even on minds alien or hostile. Rome took her culture thence.
Young Romans completed their education in the Greek schools....
And so it was with natures less akin to Greece than the Roman.
St. Paul, a Hebrew of the Hebrews, who called the wisdom of the
Greeks foolishness, was drawn to their Areopagus, and found
himself accommodating his gospel to the style, and quoting verses
from the poets of this alien race. After him, the Church, which
was born to protest against Hellenism, translated its dogmas into
the language of Greek thought and finally crystallized them in
the philosophy of Aristotle."

Whether a plaything of the gods or a cog in the wheels of the
universe this was the problem which life offered to the thinking
Greek; and in undertaking its solution, he set in motion the
forces that have made our modern civilization. That the problem
remains unsolved is nothing in comparison with the supreme fact
that in wrestling with it, and in studying the laws of the
machine, man is learning to control the small section of it with
which he is specially concerned. The veil of thaumaturgy which
shrouded the Orient, while not removed, was rent in twain, and
for the first time in history, man had a clear vision of the
world about him--"had gazed on Nature's naked loveliness"
("Adonais") unabashed and unaffrighted by the supernatural powers
about him. Not that the Greek got rid of his gods--far from
it!--but he made them so like himself, and lived on terms of such
familiarity with them that they inspired no terror.[2]

[2] "They made deities in their own image, in the likeness of an
image of corruptible man. Sua cuique deu fit dira cupido. 'Each
man's fearful passion becomes his god.'  Yes, and not passions
only, but every impulse, every aspiration, every humour, every
virtue, every whim. In each of his activities the Greek found
something wonderful, and called it God: the hearth at which he
warmed himself and cooked his food, the street in which his house
stood, the horse he rode, the cattle he pastured, the wife he
married, the child that was born to him, the plague of which he
died or from which he recovered, each suggested a deity, and he
made one to preside over each. So too with qualities and powers
more abstract." R.W. Livingstone: The Greek Genius and Its
Meaning to Us, pp. 51-52.

Livingstone discusses the Greek Genius as displayed to us in
certain "notes"--the Note of Beauty--the Desire for Freedom--the
Note of Directness--the Note of Humanism--the Note of Sanity and
of Many-sidedness. Upon some of these characteristics we shall
have occasion to dwell in the brief sketch of the rise of
scientific medicine among this wonderful people.

We have seen that the primitive man and in the great
civilizations of Egypt and Babylonia, the physician evolved from
the priest--in Greece he had a dual origin, philosophy and
religion. Let us first trace the origins in the philosophers,
particularly in the group known as the Ionian Physiologists,
whether at home or as colonists in the south of Italy, in whose
work the beginnings of scientific medicine may be found. Let me
quote a statement from Gomperz:

"We can trace the springs of Greek success achieved and
maintained by the great men of Hellas on the field of scientific
inquiry to a remarkable conjunction of natural gifts and
conditions. There was the teeming wealth of constructive
imagination united with the sleepless critical spirit which
shrank from no test of audacity; there was the most powerful
impulse to generalization coupled with the sharpest faculty for
descrying and distinguishing the finest shades of phenomenal
peculiarity; there was the religion of Hellas, which afforded
complete satisfaction to the requirements of sentiment, and yet
left the intelligence free to perform its destructive work; there
were the political conditions of a number of rival centres of
intellect, of a friction of forces, excluding the possibility of
stagnation, and, finally, of an order of state and society strict
enough to curb the excesses of 'children crying for the moon,'
and elastic enough not to hamper the soaring flight of superior
minds.... We have already made acquaintance with two of the
sources from which the spirit of criticism derived its
nourishment--the metaphysical and dialectical discussions
practiced by the Eleatic philosophers, and the semi-historical
method which was applied to the myths by Hecataeus and Herodotus.
A third source is to be traced to the schools of the physicians.
These aimed at eliminating the arbitrary element from the view
and knowledge of nature, the beginnings of which were bound up
with it in a greater or less degree, though practically without
exception and by the force of an inner necessity. A knowledge of
medicine was destined to correct that defect, and we shall mark
the growth of its most precious fruits in the increased power of
observation and the counterpoise it offered to hasty
generalizations, as well as in the confidence which learnt to
reject untenable fictions, whether produced by luxuriant
imagination or by a priori speculations, on the similar ground of
self-reliant sense-perception."[3]

[3] Gomperz: Greek Thinkers, Vol. I, p. 276.

The nature philosophers of the Ionian days did not contribute
much to medicine proper, but their spirit and their outlook upon
nature influenced its students profoundly. Their bold
generalizations on the nature of matter and of the elements are
still the wonder of chemists. We may trace to one of them,
Anaximenes, who regarded air as the primary principle, the
doctrine of the "pneuma," or the breath of life--the psychic
force which animates the body and leaves it at death--"Our soul
being air, holds us together." Of another, the famous Heraclitus,
possibly a physician, the existing fragments do not relate
specially to medicine; but to the philosopher of fire may be
traced the doctrine of heat and moisture, and their antitheses,
which influenced practice for many centuries. There is evidence
in the Hippocratic treatise peri sarkwn of an attempt to apply
this doctrine to the human body. The famous expression, panta
rhei,--"all things are flowing,"--expresses the incessant flux in
which he believed and in which we know all matter exists. No one
has said a ruder thing of the profession, for an extant fragment
reads: ". . . physicians, who cut, burn, stab, and rack the
sick, then complain that they do not get any adequate recompense
for it."[4]

[4] J. Burnet: Early Greek Philosophy, 1892, p. 137, Bywater's
no. LVIII.

The South Italian nature philosophers contributed much more to
the science of medicine, and in certain of the colonial towns
there were medical schools as early as the fifth century B.C. The
most famous of these physician philosophers was Pythagoras, whose
life and work had an extraordinary influence upon medicine,
particularly in connection with his theory of numbers, and the
importance of critical days. His discovery of the dependence of
the pitch of sound on the length of the vibrating chord is one of
the most fundamental in acoustics. Among the members of the
school which he founded at Crotona were many physicians. who
carried his views far and wide throughout Magna Graecia. Nothing
in his teaching dominated medicine so much as the doctrine of
numbers, the sacredness of which seems to have had an enduring
fascination for the medical mind. Many of the common diseases,
such as malaria, or typhus, terminating abruptly on special days,
favored this belief. How dominant it became and how persistent
you may judge from the literature upon critical days, which is
rich to the middle of the eighteenth century.

One member of the Crotonian school, Alcmaeon, achieved great
distinction in both anatomy and physiology. He first recognized
the brain as the organ of the mind, and made careful dissections
of the nerves, which he traced to the brain. He described the
optic nerves and the Eustachian tubes, made correct observations
upon vision, and refuted the common view that the sperma came
from the spinal cord. He suggested the definition of health as
the maintenance of equilibrium, or an "isonomy" in the material
qualities of the body. Of all the South Italian physicians of
this period, the personality of none stands out in stronger
outlines than that of Empedocles of Agrigentum--physician,
physiologist, religious teacher, politician and poet. A
wonder-worker, also, and magician, he was acclaimed in the cities
as an immortal god by countless thousands desiring oracles or
begging the word of healing. That he was a keen student of nature
is witnessed by many recorded observations in anatomy and
physiology; he reasoned that sensations travel by definite paths
to the brain. But our attention must be confined to his
introduction of the theory of the four elements--fire, air, earth
and water--of which, in varying quantities, all bodies were made
up. Health depended upon the due equilibrium of these primitive
substances; disease was their disturbance. Corresponding to
those were the four essential qualities of heat and cold,
moisture and dryness, and upon this four-fold division was
engrafted by the later physicians the doctrine of the humors
which, from the days of Hippocrates almost to our own, dominated
medicine. All sorts of magical powers were attributed to
Empedocles. The story of Pantheia whom he called back to life
after a thirty days' trance has long clung in the imagination.
You remember how Matthew Arnold describes him in the well-known
poem, "Empedocles on Etna"--

                    But his power
Swells with the swelling evil of this time,
And holds men mute to see where it will rise.
He could stay swift diseases in old days,
Chain madmen by the music of his lyre,
Cleanse to sweet airs the breath of poisonous streams,
And in the mountain-chinks inter the winds.
This he could do of old--[5]

a quotation which will give you an idea of some of the powers
attributed to this wonder-working physician.

[5] Poetical Works of Matthew Arnold, Macmillan & Co., 1898, p.
440.

But of no one of the men of this remarkable circle have we such
definite information as of the Crotonian physician Democedes,
whose story is given at length by Herodotus; and his story has
also the great importance of showing that, even at this early
period, a well-devised scheme of public medical service existed
in the Greek cities. It dates from the second half of the sixth
century B.C.--fully two generations before Hippocrates. A
Crotonian, Democedes by name, was found among the slaves of
Oroetes. Of his fame as a physician someone had heard and he was
called in to treat the dislocated ankle of King Darius. The wily
Greek, longing for his home, feared that if he confessed to a
knowledge of medicine there would be no chance of escape, but
under threat of torture he undertook a treatment which proved
successful. Then Herodotus tells his story--how, ill treated at
home in Crotona, Democedes went to AEgina, where he set up as a
physician and in the second year the State of AEgina hired his
services at the price of a talent. In the third year, the
Athenians engaged him at 100 minae; and in the fourth, Polycrates
of Samos at two talents. Democedes shared the misfortunes of
Polycrates and was taken prisoner by Oroetes. Then Herodotus
tells how he cured Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus and wife of
Darius, of a severe abscess of the breast, but on condition that
she help him to escape, and she induced her husband to send an
expedition of exploration to Greece under the guidance of
Democedes, but with the instructions at all costs to bring back
the much prized physician. From Tarentum, Democedes escaped to
his native city, but the Persians followed him, and it was with
the greatest difficulty that he escaped from their hands.
Deprived of their guide, the Persians gave up the expedition and
sailed for Asia. In palliation of his flight, Democedes sent a
message to Darius that he was engaged to the daughter of Milo,
the wrestler, who was in high repute with the King.[6]

[6] The well-known editor of Herodotus, R. W. Macan, Master of
University College, Oxford, in his Hellenikon. A Sheaf of
Sonnets after Herodotus (Oxford, 1898) has included a poem which
may be quoted in connection with this incident:

NOSTALGY
Atossa, child of Cyrus king of kings,
healed by Greek science of a morbid breast,
gave lord Dareios neither love nor rest
till he fulfilled her vain imaginings.
"Sir, show our Persian folk your sceptre's wings!
Enlarge my sire's and brother's large bequest.
This learned Greek shall guide your galleys west,
and Dorian slave-girls grace our banquetings."
So said she, taught of that o'er-artful man,
the Italiote captive, Kroton's Demokede,
who recked not what of maladies began,
nor who in Asia and in Greece might bleed,
if he--so writes the guileless Thurian--
regained his home, and freedom of the Mede.

Plato has several references to these state physicians, who were
evidently elected by a public assembly: "When the assembly meets
to elect a physician," and the office was yearly, for in "The
Statesman" we find the following:[7] "When the year of office has
expired, the pilot, or physician has to come before a court of
review" to answer any charges. The physician must have been in
practice for some time and attained eminence, before he was
deemed worthy of the post of state physician.

[7] Jowett: Dialogues of Plato, 3d ed., Statesman, Vol. IV, p.
502 (Stephanus, II, 298 E)

"If you and I were physicians, and were advising one another that
we were competent to practice as state-physicians, should I not
ask about you, and would you not ask about me, Well, but how
about Socrates himself, has he good health? and was anyone else
ever known to be cured by him whether slave or freeman?"[7a]

[7a] Jowett: Dialogues of Plato, 3d ed., Gorgias, Vol. II, p.
407 (Stephanus, I, 514 D).

All that is known of these state physicians has been collected by
Pohl,[8] who has